Redefining Jewish Eschatology

As discussed in the preceding section, when Jesus began his ministry the following concepts were already established in Jewish thought; although their true nature and even their existence, continued to be a matter of serious contention:

• Sheol – The Place of the Dead.
• Abraham’s Bosom – a place where righteous Jews could await their eventual resurrection.
• Gehenna – a place of Divine retribution, to be followed either by eventual resurrection, or
• The Second Death – destruction or a state of permanent death.

These terms were used in the teachings of Jesus and the apostles, and carried over into the Greek New Testament: but the reader should note that their NT meanings are those defined by Jesus; and certain aspects differ significantly from their Jewish counterparts. Some older English translations, such as the ‘Authorised’ (or ‘King James’) Version, preferred not to preserve the Jewish names of ‘Sheol‘ and ‘Gehenna‘ – instead using the same word, ‘hell,’ for both – whereas most modern English translations retain the Jewish names. Both approaches have their problems, as readers tend to interpret these terms in the light of Jewish, Greek and other cultural traditions that may be very different from the teaching of Jesus himself.

So we’ll start by looking at Jesus’ treatment of these subjects…

Sheol and Abraham’s Bosom

In the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Jesus is talking about Sheol (Greek: ‘Hades‘).

It happened that the beggar died, and that he was carried away by the angels to Abraham’s bosom. The rich man also died, and was buried. In Hades, he lifted up his eyes, being in torment (G931), and saw Abraham far off, and Lazarus at his bosom. He cried and said, ‘Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus, that he may dip the tip of his finger in water, and cool my tongue! For I am in anguish (G3600) in this flame (G5395).’ “But Abraham said, ‘Son, remember that you, in your lifetime, received your good things, and Lazarus, in like manner, bad things. But now here he is comforted and you are in anguish (G3600). Besides all this, between us and you there is a great gulf fixed, that those who want to pass from here to you are not able, and that none may cross over from there to us.’ “He said, ‘I ask you therefore, father, that you would send him to my father’s house; for I have five brothers, that he may testify to them, so they won’t also come into this place of torment (G931).’ “But Abraham said to him, ‘They have Moses and the prophets. Let them listen to them.’ “He said, ‘No, father Abraham, but if one goes to them from the dead, they will repent.’ “He said to him, ‘If they don’t listen to Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded if one rises from the dead.’ ” (Lk 16:22-31)

Notice the following points:

• The rich man’s brothers are still alive; so Jesus is describing what happens to someone soon after they have died rather than what happens at the final judgement of the whole world.
• Not everyone goes to Hades. We are told that Lazarus, who has been treated badly in life, is taken to ‘Abraham’s bosom,’ where he is being comforted.
• But the differing treatments of the two men, even before God’s final judgement, reveals something important about the character of God. He does not want the injustices of this world to be prolonged any longer than absolutely necessary; so, even before his final judgement has been served, he has begun to comfort the afflicted and bring retribution on the guilty.
• Does this mean that everyone who has been treated badly in life is automatically excused from Hades? Or was Lazarus taken to Abraham’s bosom because, despite everything, he remained a devout Jew? Neither question is clearly answered; because that isn’t the real point of the parable.
• The crucial issue is that the rich man was living in a state of luxurious indifference to the needs of those around him. This was in spite of the fact that every Jew had been taught since childhood that such behaviour was unacceptable to God.¹ The rich man’s argument was, ‘But surely, if people really knew that what the Bible taught was true, then they would do the right thing.’ But Jesus tells us the response was that no amount of evidence will solve the problem if people don’t really want to listen. Take careful note of this point. We will come back to it later.

In the passage cited above you will have noticed some words are followed by numbers in brackets that begin with ‘G’. These are known as “Strong’s numbers.”² Those with a ‘G’ prefix are used to identify specific words in the Greek text, regardless of how they are actually translated. I want to draw your attention to 3 particular words used in this text:

• anguish (G3600). This word is found 4 times in the N.T. and only in the writings of Luke; twice here, plus Lk 2:48 and Acts 20:38. In the latter two cases, the context makes it plain that Luke is using the word in the sense of mental anguish, or grieving, rather than physical pain. This is confirmed by examining the use of this same word in the Greek Septuagint translation of the Old Testament.
• torment (G931). This is found only 3 times in the N.T.; twice in this parable (Lk 16:23,28) and in Mt 4:24. The latter occurs in a description of various kinds of human disorders – disease, being held by ‘torments’, demon possession, insanity and paralysis. There are 11 other examples of this word being used in the Septuagint O.T.: 4 times in 1Samuel 6:3-17 to refer to the ‘guilt offering’ made by the Philistines; in Ezekiel 3:20 & 7:19 it translates the Hebrew for ‘stumbling-block’; in Ezekiel 12:18 the Hebrew for trepidation or trembling; and in Ezekiel 16:52,54 & 32:24,30 for disgrace or shame. All of the Septuagint examples deal with the idea of people being brought to a point of retribution concerning their personal guilt and disgrace. This also makes good sense in the context of this parable; and also in Mt 4:24, as unresolved bitterness, guilt and shame have long been recognised as causes of many disorders of both mind and body (e.g. Pro 17:22). Clearly, none of these experiences were in any sense pleasant and in some cases may have involved significant physical pain: but, as with anguish, that is not the primary sense of this word.
• flame (G5395). This word means a blaze of light. It commonly refers to a flame from a fire; though not necessarily a literal flame. (In the Septuagint rendering of Judges 3:22 it even translates the Hebrew for the highly polished blade of a knife: though that is exceptional.) It is noteworthy that this word is used 7 times in the N.T.; and in all 6 other cases it is explicitly qualified by the word, ‘fire’ — even though in 4 of these (Heb 1:7; Rev 1:14; 2:18 & 19:12) it appears to be simply a visual or metaphorical comparison. But in this passage (in spite of what some translations say) ‘fire’ is not mentioned — only heat and thirst. So there could be legitimate grounds for arguing that the flame here may be non-physical, such as the blazing heat and light of God’s holiness, exposing the man’s sin and shame (see Jn 3:19-20).

But remember that what we are dealing with here is the period before God’s final judgement. So what does Jesus have to say about what happens afterwards?

Gehenna

We have already noted that by the first century BC it was standard Jewish practice to accompany public reading of the Hebrew scriptures with a verse-by-verse explanatory paraphrase in Aramaic. The ‘Targum Jonathan‘³ provides the approved renderings for many of the prophetic books. This is particularly significant with respect to the final verse of Isaiah:

“They shall go forth, and look on the dead bodies of the men who have transgressed against me: for their worm shall not die, neither shall their fire be quenched; and they will be loathsome to all mankind.” (Isa 66:24)

The Targum renders this as:

And they shall go forth, and look upon the carcases of the men, the sinners, who have rebelled against my Word: for their souls shall not die, and their fire shall not be quenched; and the wicked shall be judged in Gehenna, till the righteous shall say concerning them, we have seen enough.

The rather puzzling word, ‘worm’ is interpreted as ‘souls,’ thereby suggesting that ‘souls’ do not die; and the explanatory phrase, ‘ the wicked shall be judged in Gehenna‘ is added. Finally, the last phrase is amended to imply that the punishment is of limited duration. As mentioned previously, modern Jewish tradition takes the view that the maximum time spent in Gehenna is no more than 12 months.

However, Mark records Jesus citing this same prophecy from Isaiah:

If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter into life maimed, rather than having your two hands to go into Gehenna, into the unquenchable (G762) fire (G4442), ‘where their worm (G4663) doesn’t die (G5053), and the fire (G4442) is not quenched (G4570).’ If your foot causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter into life lame, rather than having your two feet to be cast into Gehenna, into the fire (G4442) that will never be quenched (G762) – ‘where their worm (G4663) doesn’t die (G5053), and the fire (G4442) is not quenched (G4570).’ If your eye causes you to stumble, cast it out. It is better for you to enter into the Kingdom of God with one eye, rather than having two eyes to be cast into the Gehenna of fire (G4442), ‘where their worm (G4663) doesn’t die (G5053), and the fire (G4442) is not quenched (G4570).’ (Mar 9:43-48)

Jesus disciples were not Hebrew scholars (Acts 4:13); and so would probably be more familiar with the words of the Targum than the original Hebrew. But, apart from confirming that he is describing ‘Gehenna,’ Jesus sticks to Isaiah’s original wording of, ‘their worm doesn’t die and the fire is not quenched.’ He also omits the end of the verse; not discussing the attitude of others: but making no attempt to suggest that there is any limit to its duration.

Looking at the meanings of the marked words, we can note the following:

• fire (G4442). This is the normal Greek word for almost any kind of fire, and would always be understood in that manner unless modified by its context (e.g. ‘fire from heaven’ might be interpreted as ‘lightning’).
• unquenchable (G762) and quenched(G4570). G762 is a negative adjective formed from the verb, G4570 ; so in both cases Jesus is emphasizing that the nature of the fire is such that it cannot and will not be put out. Such repeated emphasis makes it very clear that Jesus wants us to know that this fire is supernatural and eternal in nature. (And very much to be feared, as underlined by the drastic avoidance measures that Jesus himself suggests.)
• worm (G4663). The Greek word used here and in the Septuagint translation of Is 66:24 may be translated as ‘maggot,’ ‘grub’ or ‘earthworm:’ never ‘soul.’ But it should be noted that, the original Hebrew of Is 66:24, instead of using the general word for a grub, maggot or worm (H7415), uses a very specific word: “tole’ah” (H8438). This translates as the name of either a very particular type of grub (the ‘crimson grub’, Kermes (or coccus) ilicis) or else of the vivid scarlet or crimson dye obtained from it. Since G4663 is a generic term for ‘grub’ it is apparent that it is the grub itself, rather than just the colour, that is intended. But the specific Hebrew name identifies an insect that normally feeds on certain types of oak tree, rather than decaying flesh. The female attaches itself to oak stems or leaves, forming what looks like a swollen red gall; its body acting as a living shield for its young until they hatch and eventually consume the mother. The red dye released by the mother is so strong that it colours the leaves, young twigs and the grubs themselves; which are collected and dried.
• die (G5053). In every other of the 12 N.T. occurrences this indicates biological death: though it could perhaps be used here in a metaphorical sense; particularly if interpreted as representing the guilt of unforgiven sin.

But notice that, just as the fire is portrayed as never-ending, so also is the repulsive image of these blood-red grubs covering whatever remains of the transgressors. And we are not told how either endures without further supplies of fuel or food. We know that Moses’ bush burned without being consumed. But what are these grubs supposed to be feeding on? We’ll return to this question later.

For the sake of completeness, I will briefly mention the following related passages:

• Mat 18:6-9 appears to be an abbreviated version of the same dialog as Mark 9:43-48. This is almost certainly an independent rendering of the same conversation. The context (causing children to go astray) is the same, as is the verse (Isa 66:24) that Jesus quotes. But, where Mark 9:43,45 speaks of, ‘the fire that will never be quenched,’ Matthew calls it ‘everlasting (G166) fire’. This Greek word ‘aionios‘ is usually translated ‘eternal’ or ‘everlasting:’ but some argue that it should be rendered, ‘aeonian’ or, ‘for the duration of the age.’ We will discuss this in more detail shortly.
• Mat 5:29-30 is a much-abbreviated version of the above: but found in the Sermon on the Mount.
• Mat 23:33 cites Jesus’ words to the scribes and Pharisees: ‘You serpents, you offspring of vipers, how will you escape the judgment (G2920) of Gehenna?’ This Greek word ‘krisis,’ indicates that Gehenna is a place for the administration of justice; and Jesus makes it clear that their Jewishness and professions of goodness are not likely to grant them an exemption from its penalty.

The Second Death

“Don’t be afraid of those who kill (G615) the body, but are not able to kill (G615) the soul. Rather, fear him who is able to destroy (G622) both soul and body in Gehenna.” (Mat 10:28)

Although Jesus never directly used the expression, ‘the second death,’ during his earthly ministry, the above reference indicates that, in his thinking, this was linked with the punishment of Gehenna. G615, ‘apokteino,’ commonly means ‘kill’ or, more literally, ‘to do away with by cutting off from life;’ though not in the sense of destroying whatever remains. But G622, ‘apollumi,’ means ‘to do away with by an act of destruction.’ Again, we will discuss this in more detail later.

Bitter Remorse in the Fire of Outer Darkness

Consider the following sayings of Jesus cited by both Matthew and Luke:

Mat 8:11-12 I tell you that many will come from the east and the west, and will sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the Kingdom of Heaven, but the children of the Kingdom will be thrown out (G1544) into the outer (G1857) darkness (G4655). There (G1563) will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.

Luk 13:28  There (G1563) shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth, when ye shall see Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and all the prophets, in the kingdom of God, and you yourselves thrust (G1544) out (G1854).

Jesus is addressing Jewish people, descended from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; whose future vision was for the eventual coming of the Messiah, a descendant of their own King David, to set up the kingdom of God on earth. As such, they saw themselves as being the ‘children of the Kingdom.’ Note particularly the following points:

• Firstly, Jesus is giving them a stark warning that in reality they are at serious risk of being forcibly rejected. G1544 literally means ‘throw … out’; but if that were not clear enough, Luke explicitly adds G1854 (‘away from’).
• Secondly, he describes this place as ‘outer (G1857) darkness (G4655)’. G1857 is a compound of G1854, again emphasizing the idea of rejection and separation. G4655, ‘darkness,’ is sometimes used in the sense of ‘obscurity’: but in the N.T. it is most commonly presented as the absence of light in a physical or moral sense.
• Thirdly, he makes it plain that such an experience will result in bitter, conscious remorse for those rejected in this way, as indicated by the phrase, ‘weeping and gnashing of teeth.’ Grinding the teeth in their culture was an expression of extreme bitterness (or even anger – Acts 7:54).
• Finally, note that the term, ‘there (G1563)’, is not an abstract or incidental word: it indicates a specific place, the outer region to which the rejected ones have been consigned.

There are four further references in Matthew to sayings of Jesus that echo this theme of ‘weeping and gnashing of teeth’:

Mat 13:40-42 As therefore the darnel weeds are gathered up and burned (G2618) with fire (G4442); so will it be at the end of this age (G165). The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will gather out of his Kingdom all things that cause stumbling, and those who do iniquity, and will cast them into the furnace of fire (G4442). There (G1563) will be weeping and the gnashing of teeth.

Mat 13:49-50 So will it be in the end of the world (G165). The angels will come forth, and separate the wicked from among the righteous, and will cast them into the furnace of fire (G4442). There (G1563) will be the weeping and the gnashing of teeth.

Mat 22:13 Then the king said to the servants, ‘Bind him hand and foot, take him away, and throw (G1544) him into the outer (G1857) darkness (G4655); there (G1563) is where the weeping and grinding of teeth will be.’

Mat 25:30 Throw out (G1544) the unprofitable servant into the outer (G1857) darkness (G4655), where there (G1563) will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’

From these we can pick up the following additional points:

• All of these verses appear to be referring to the same place, ‘where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’
• If they do all refer to the same place, then this ‘furnace of fire’ in ‘outer darkness’ must be powered by no ordinary fire: but some kind of dark fire emitting no light.
• When the darnel weeds are ‘burned (G2618) with fire (G4442),’ G2618 signifies ‘burnt down,’ (i.e. so that nothing but ash would remain). It is therefore not unreasonable to ask whether a similar destruction may be suggested for those being cast into the ‘furnace of fire (G4442)’. We will consider this in more detail later.
• Both the references in Matthew 13:24-50 are from parables describing events at the end of the age/world. The English word, ‘aeon,’ was originally a transliteration of the Greek word ‘aion’ (G165)) and remains very close to it in meaning. But there are significant differences, which we will discuss in more detail in Appendix A.
• The parable in Matthew 22:2-14 also appears to be focussed on end-time events, describing a marriage banquet where the original guests are rejected, along with someone who got into the feast without a wedding garment. (Since this was customarily provided by the host at the entrance, it implies he had rejected the host’s generosity or tried to sneak in some other way.)
• On the other hand, Mat 25:14-30 tells how a lazy servant is also consigned to the outer darkness.
• Although these passages appear to be referring to the same place, the last 2 describe very different circumstances. Does this mean that the lazy servant suffers the same fate as the wicked; or is it possible that the ultimate outcome is different?

Footnotes

1. See, for example, Lev 19:9-10, Deut 16:11-14, Job 31:16-22, Is 58:4-11[/x].
2. These numbers correspond to entries in the Dictionary of Greek Words from Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance by James Strong, S.T.D., LL.D.
3. ‘The Chaldee paraphrase on the prophet Isaiah’ [by Jonathan b. Uzziel] tr. by C.W.H. Pauli, London Society’s House, 1871, pg. 226. Public domain. Available from Google Books.